In fact developing one's own animations can be a relatively easy process the issue is one of goals and complexity. Here we show that this need not be the case. Heyden (2004) states that making animations and multimedia is “not a simple job” but is a “time-consuming and often frustrating” process. The perceived complexity of developing an animation can be a deterrent for most instructors. Interactivity should be considered because even minimal interactivity (e.g., ability to pause, rewind, fast-forward) enhances the learning value of animations ( Tversky and Morrison, 2002). There are other issues to consider in presenting an animation. Animations that move too quickly or that contain excessive extraneous detail or realism may overwhelm the learner, leading to little comprehension ( Tversky and Morrison, 2002). The “apprehension principle” states that in order for a learner to gain a proper understanding of the material, the content must be easily and accurately perceived and understood. In short, the material provided to students must be appropriate to the topic at hand and to their educational status. There is a body of evidence that suggests that students do not perform better with animations when the animations contain more information than is appropriate ( Tversky and Morrison, 2002). Student depth of learning (comprehension) is enhanced by conversational style narrative (“personalization effect”) and by the absence of extraneous content (“coherence effect”). These results are consistent with the cognitive load theory, which is based on the concept that there is a limited amount of working memory, and by using both visual and auditory channels, working memory is increased ( Mayer and Anderson, 1992 Sweller, 1994 Mayer et al., 2001). Mayer (2003) has provided evidence that students learn more effectively when words and pictures are combined (“multimedia effect”) than from words alone and when printed words are placed adjacent to corresponding pictures (“spatial contiguity effect”). Furthermore, animations with concurrent verbal narration are more beneficial to the learner than visual narration ( Mayer and Anderson, 1992). It is well documented that narrated animations are more effective than those that lack narration ( Mayer and Anderson, 1992 Sweller, 1994 Lowe, 2003).
In developing animations for any subject, it is important to understand what pedagogical attributes are most effective. These are just two examples but, as one might expect, not all topics have been developed into animations, and those that are freely available may not meet one's specific needs or teaching philosophy. Stith (2004) has produced, alone and in conjunction with others, many excellent, complex animations on topics such as enzyme activity, cell movement, and signal transduction pathways.
Many free animations are available including high-quality animations on molecular biology and metabolism from the Virtual Cell (VCell) animation project ( McClean et al., 2005). Already many animations exist that demonstrate fundamental events but the vast majority of these are offerings available only upon adoption of a specific textbook. Cell biology involves many dynamic processes that lend themselves to animation, and there is accumulating evidence that animations are more effective than static sequential images in the learning process ( Nicholls and Merkel, 1996 Pollock et al., 2002). Information is also provided on how such animations can be modified or updated easily or shared with others who can modify them to fit their own needs.Īnimations can bring complex cellular events to life and give students insight into dynamic events that static graphics cannot. In addition, results from student evaluations provided some data validating the use of such animations in cell biology teaching with some interesting caveats. Students who viewed the approximately 3-min PowerPoint/Camtasia Studio animation “Calcium and the Dual Signalling Pathway” over 15 min scored significantly higher marks on a subsequent quiz than those who had viewed still graphics with text for an equivalent time. Thus anyone who can use PowerPoint has the potential to make animations.
After developing the animation it can be easily converted to any appropriate movie file format using Camtasia Studio for Internet or classroom presentations. Here I outline the principles and sequence of steps for producing high-quality PowerPoint animations in less than a day that are suitable for teaching in high school through college/university. However, existing animation packages are expensive and difficult to learn, and the subsequent production of even short animations can take weeks to months. There is accumulating evidence that animations aid learning of dynamic concepts in cell biology.